Seeds of Division#
During the lifetime of Shakyamuni, there was no written record; all Buddhist teachings were transmitted orally (a side note: ancient India lacked the habit of recording text, leading to part of its history being based on speculation and part on travelogues by Tang Dynasty monks such as "Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang").
Due to oral transmission, deviations inevitably occurred during the spread of teachings. After the Buddha's parinirvana, the then chief elder Mahakasyapa was concerned that the bhikkhus (monks) would relax their discipline, so he convened 500 "senior members" to standardize the Buddhist teachings, historically known as the "First Council."
These 500 individuals were personally selected by Mahakasyapa. Initially, even Ananda, Shakyamuni's cousin and long-time attendant, was excluded because Mahakasyapa deemed him "not competent." It was only after the monks argued for him that Ananda was allowed to attend the meeting.
When the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma (preached), no precepts were established. However, as the monastic community grew, the number of precepts gradually increased, leading to disputes surrounding them. In his later years, the Buddha likely realized that being overly entangled in precepts could affect the essence of Buddhism regarding liberation, and thus before his parinirvana, he specifically instructed Ananda that "minor precepts may be abandoned," meaning some minor rules could be discarded.
At the meeting, Ananda conveyed this instruction from the Buddha, which caused a huge uproar. Mahakasyapa retorted, what constitutes a "minor precept"? Ananda was momentarily speechless because the Buddha did not specify which were "minor precepts." Mahakasyapa then decisively stated that everything would be based on what he had heard, namely What the Buddha has said, that should be followed; what the Buddha has not said, should not be spoken of.
Thus, the seeds of the schism in Buddhism were sown.
Subsequent councils followed, the Second and Third Councils.
According to modern Buddhist historical research, the Second Council, arising from disputes over precepts, directly led to the division of Buddhism into the Theravada and Mahayana schools (the distinction between elites and the masses).
Due to space constraints, this article will not recount the process of the Second Council. It is important to note that at this time, the schism was still based on differences in precepts, and doctrinally the bhikkhus still adhered to what Shakyamuni taught. However, the "Five Matters of Datian," which occurred before and after the Third Council, directly led to the doctrinal schism in Buddhism.
And the "ruthless" Datian was the catalyst for this schism.
The "Ruthless" Datian#
How ruthless was this bhikkhu named Datian? The Theravada Buddhist text "Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra" records Datian as follows:
"When his son grew up, he became impure with his mother; later, upon hearing that his father was returning, he was frightened and conspired with his mother to kill his father... Later, he encountered an arahant bhikkhu supported by his country, and fearing that the matter would be exposed, he devised a plan to kill that bhikkhu... Afterwards, he saw his mother in an improper relationship with another, and thus he conveniently killed his mother."
Translation: "(Datian) grew up and had an incestuous relationship with his mother. Later, upon hearing that his father was returning, he was very afraid and conspired with his mother to kill his father... After that, he encountered an arahant bhikkhu supported by his country, fearing that the matter would be exposed, he devised a plan to kill that bhikkhu... Later, he discovered that his mother was again in an improper relationship with someone else, so he devised a way to kill his mother."
Incest with his mother, patricide, matricide, and the slaughter of bhikkhus. Goodness, Datian could be said to have committed every evil deed.
The "Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra" also states that after Datian died, his body could not be cremated no matter what; only after being doused with dog feces did it immediately turn to ashes, and his ashes were blown away by the strong wind: On the seventh day, he passed away... They piled him up and burned him. The fire came but extinguished as soon as it arrived. Various methods could not ignite... It was appropriate to sprinkle dog feces on him. Then, as he said, the fire ignited. In a moment, it burned and turned to ashes. A strong wind came and scattered them without a trace.
This description is clearly a smear against Datian by the Theravada Buddhists, but it is indeed somewhat amusing.
Tang Xuanzang's disciple, Master Kuaiji, believed that Datian was slandered, and all sorts of crimes were concentrated on him. Because the views he proposed were a significant reason for the schism in the monastic community: Datian is renowned and virtuous. He attained enlightenment at a young age. The king admired his demeanor. The monks revered his teachings. Eventually, he became isolated and was envied by the contemporary society. They slandered him with the three reversals and added the five matters to him.
So what exactly did Datian do to provoke such hatred from the Theravada Buddhists of his time?
The Five Matters of Datian#
Datian, feeling deeply guilty, decided to ordain to wash away his sins after a fortuitous opportunity. He was intelligent, well-versed in scriptures, and claimed to have attained the state of an arahant (the highest rank in early Buddhism), quickly gaining a reputation. Moreover, as senior bhikkhus in the monastery passed away, Datian became an elder by virtue of his seniority.
One night, Datian had a wet dream, leading to ejaculation. Datian instructed his disciples to wash his clothes. The disciples were shocked upon seeing the stains and hurried back to ask Datian: "How can an arahant, who has eliminated all afflictions, still have a wet dream?"
Datian thought nothing of it and said that even arahants could be influenced by external demons, leading to nocturnal emissions. Not only that, he proposed five matters, asserting that arahants are not perfect and have flaws.
These five matters are: "External temptation, ignorance, hesitation, reliance on others, and the arising of the path due to sound."
- External temptation: Arahants can be impure due to external temptations, such as wet dreams.
- Ignorance: Arahants still have ignorance regarding certain worldly issues.
- Hesitation: Arahants still have doubts about certain worldly issues.
- Reliance on others: Arahants need others' confirmation to verify their attainment.
- The arising of the path due to sound: Arahants need to hear the Buddha's teachings to attain enlightenment.
These statements are essentially Datian's sophistry to justify his own misdeeds. As mentioned earlier, Datian became an elder by virtue of his seniority, and he took advantage of his position to cultivate confidants, directly issuing "arahant graduation certificates" to his disciples. The disciples who received the "graduation certificates" felt confused, as the scriptures state that arahants have eliminated all afflictions and possess great wisdom. Yet they still had many doubts; how could they be "graduated"? At this time, Datian used the "twisted logic" of the five matters to deflect: Moreover, Datian wanted to make his disciples happy and attached. He falsely established a sequence to differentiate the four fruits of the monks. At that time, the disciples bowed and said, "Arahants should have attained wisdom. How come we do not know ourselves?"
The proposal of the Five Matters of Datian caused a huge uproar within Buddhism. The Theravada elders were naturally "furious," viewing it as heresy, while Datian, due to the inclusiveness of his ideas, garnered considerable support among the Mahayana followers. The two monastic communities engaged in intense debates, escalating from night until dawn, with scholars, commoners, and even ministers coming to persuade them to no avail. Eventually, Emperor Ashoka personally intervened to mediate.
However, his mediation method was simple and crude; whichever faction had more people, he would declare that faction the winner. Datian had a large base of support, while the Theravada, although reasonable, consisted mostly of old monks, leading to an obvious outcome.
Although the virtuous and holy elders had many in number, the Theravada monks were few. Datian's followers were few in number but many in crowd. The king thus sided with Datian's majority. He suppressed the remaining group.
The Theravada felt disappointed and decided to leave this place of disputes. Upon hearing this, Ashoka became furious and plotted to massacre the Theravada monks (I personally doubt the authenticity of this account, as Ashoka was a devout Buddhist in his later years and would not commit such atrocities).
At that time, the virtuous and holy ones, knowing the crowd was divided, left the chicken garden, wanting to go elsewhere. The ministers heard this and quickly reported to the king. Upon hearing this, the king was enraged and commanded his ministers: "They should all be taken to the banks of the Ganges, loaded onto broken boats, and drowned in the middle of the river to verify whether they are saints or ordinary." The ministers complied with the king's words and proceeded to test them.
Thus, the Theravada and Mahayana completely severed ties, splitting into more sects based on doctrinal differences.
Why Did the Five Matters Cause Controversy?#
Looking back at the entire "Five Matters of Datian" incident, it began with an unexpected ejaculation from a bhikkhu and ended with the ruler personally intervening in a bloody suppression, the development is astonishing.
The reason the Five Matters of Datian caused such a huge controversy lies at its core──Is arahant truly the endpoint of Buddhist practice?
In Shakyamuni's initial teachings, an arahant is a saint who has eliminated all afflictions and escaped the cycle of birth and death, symbolizing absolute liberation. Shakyamuni himself was also an arahant. Ordaining and practicing, achieving tranquility and liberation, was sufficient.
However, Datian directly undermined the foundation of Buddhism; if arahant is not the endpoint, then what is the endpoint?
The Mahayana Buddhism that developed from the Mahayana school was clearly inspired by Datian's thoughts. They viewed the practice of arahant as "Hinayana," with the ultimate goal being the practice of the Bodhisattva path and attaining Buddhahood.
The strong reaction from the Theravada elders was ostensibly a dispute over doctrine and rightful teachings, but in reality, it also concerned the distribution of power and discourse within the monastic community. The Theravada was led by senior elders, representing the interests of the elite class, emphasizing the purity of doctrine and the rigor of precepts. Mahakasyapa's "one-man rule" style in the First Council exemplified this "elitism."
The Five Matters of Datian not only reinterpreted the doctrine but also directly provoked the authority of the Theravada elders. The masses tend to favor more inclusive and flexible religious practices, which is the main reason Datian was able to gain a popular base.
Conclusion#
In fact, not only Buddhism, but many religions experience this "lowering of thresholds" in their development. For example, Protestantism in Christianity abolished the tradition of indulgences in Catholicism, advocating that everyone can be redeemed. This lowered the threshold for faith, thus promoting the rapid spread of Protestantism.
In the future, the Theravada, due to its conservative doctrines, still retains the tradition of original Buddhist speculation, becoming a philosophical discipline. In contrast, the Mahayana Buddhism that evolved from the Mahayana school continues to innovate, pursuing the deification of the Buddha and the path to Buddhahood without looking back.
Whether this religious innovation is good or bad is left for the reader to ponder.
References#
- "Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra," Volume 99, translated by Xuanzang, Wikisource, https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/ 阿毗达磨大毗婆沙论 / 卷 099.
- "Yogācārabhūmi," Volume 01, Kuaiji, Wikisource, https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/ 瑜伽師地論略纂 / 卷 001.
- "Five Matters of Datian," Wikipedia, https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 大天五事.
- "Fundamental Schism," Wikipedia, https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 根本分裂.